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American Education: European Heritage and Colonial Experience Wiki
Many aspects of American Education can be traced all the way back to the ancient societies of Sparta, Athens and Rome. Sparta established the importance of physical and moral training. Concepts of a liberal education can be traced back to Athens, along with the invention of the Socratic method that many educators still use today. The beginning ideas of the scientific method and reason can also be credited to Athens. Thanks to Rome and one of its famous philosophers, Quintilian, we now recognize the importance of developing lessons around individual student’s needs. Extra curricular activities such as sports, games and music and the role they play in helping to develop a whole well rounded person can also be traced back to the Romans. Our distinction between elementary, middle, high school and university can also be traced back to ancient societies. Systematic training for teachers so that they can develop a broad overall knowledge as well as a deeper knowledge in one or two subjects was first suggested during the Renaissance. The Renaissance is also noted for supporting free and compulsory education. Also, during the Renaissance the first theory of child growth and development was proposed along with the need for a research university.Much of how our educational system is designed today is thanks to all of our western predecessors. Some of our basic methodologies have not changed in 1000’s of years. They’ve been tried and tested and continue to be utilized in educating the youth of America. Education in Ancient Societies Jordan, K. Forbis, Arlene Metha, and L. Dean Webb, Foundations of American Education (5th Edition) (Alexandria, VA: Prentice Hall, 2006). pp.100-125. Temple Schools The oldest school known to date was located in a region known as Sumer located in Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. These schools dated back to 3000 B.C. and focused on writing and some calculations. Writing was done on clay tablets called cuneiform. The Sumerian langurage consisted of over 600 characters. Sumerian schools were usually connected with a temple, hence the name temple schools, but were also referred to as Tablet Houses or edubba. Temple schools were also found in Egypt. Egyptian temple schools focused on writing, music, religion, astronomy and matematics for younger students, usually lasting 6-10 years, and addtiional subjects such as religion, medicine, and architecture were provided for a limited amount of older students. Temple schools in Egypt were mostly reserved for children of the upper class to prepare them to govern and expand the Egyptian empire. Greece The Greeks are considered the first real educators in the Western world. They started to comtemplate how important it is to educate the young, reasons why and its methodology. While both Sparta and Athens agreed on the importance of educating their children they drastically differed in how it was to be done. Sparta Military held a huge role in Sparta's identity. They felt that the primary goal in educating youth was to preserve its military dominance. Interests of the State came before the interests of the individual causing there to be many encroachments on personal freedoms. Formal education began at age 7 for boys. Creativity and intellectualism were considered radical ideas and severly frowned upon. Boys were taught doctrines such as patriotism, sacrifice for the good of the State and courage. Their education also contained extensive physical activity and training. Athens Athens on the other hand was a Democracy and emphasised the importance of the individual. Athenian schools were private and attended by only those who could afford the fees. Boys age 7 to 14, whose parents could afford the cost of school would attend different schools that specialized in different subjects. The didascaleum ''was a music school, the ''grammatistes ''was a school that focused on reading, writing and arithmethic and the ''palestra ''was a school for physical activity. After 14 boys had the option to continue their edcation in the gymnasia where the primary focus was in physical activity and training very militaristic in nature. All men were required to complete two years of military training at age 18. It is still uncertain what role education played for girls in Athens. This was the norm of education in pre 479 B.C.E. in Athens until the defeat of Sparta. Post 479 B.C.E. a new education element was added at the secondary level. Known as the Sophists, educated men who traveled around charging for their teaching services. Sophists are credited for developing Logography or the writing of speeches. Greek Philosophers Socrates (470-399 B.C.E.) Socrates was a proponent of education and its importance to a well functioning and productive society. He refused to accept monetary compensation for his teaching. He believed that purpose of knowledge was not to gain power or success but was important to all men in regards to ethical and moral development. Socrates developed what is known as the Socratic Method, where a teacher uses a series of questions rather than direct answers to aid a students to arrive at an answer or a deeper understanding of a concept on thier own terms. Plato (428 -347 B.C.E) Plato is one of the most well-known students of Socrates. He shared many of Socrates' educational theories but added a few of his own ideas. Plato, like Socrates, refused to accept fees for his teaching services, however, he did accept donations. Plato assigned individual problems and excercises on top of the socratic method and lecturing. Plato emphasised the important role that education played within society. So much in fact, that he believed that the State should be responsible for its educational system. According to Plato, the main role of education was to help individual discover and embrace their strengths and prepare them for their role in society. Plato also believed that education would naturally seperate people into their place in the social hierarchy, where the most wise would govern the state. Plato believed in a traditional curriculum that included reading, writing, mathematics and logic, as well as, extra curricular activities such as games, sport and music. These extra activies were crucial in developing morality and the individual soul. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) One of Plato's most famous students was [Aristotle. Aristotle agreed with Plato on a few of his educational ideas but differed drastically from Plato in some of beliefs. Aristotle was much more scientific than Plato. He took a much more systematic approach to education and is credited for introducing the Scientific Method. He agreed with Plato, in that, education played a crucial role within society, however unlike Plato, Aristotle didn't see any value in educating females. He believed that the main goal of education was happiness. Happiness was achieved through the development of intellect and in return a person would become a better person and citizen. Aristotle grouped music and physical education with reading and writing as core subjects. Rome The Romans conqured the Greeks in 148 B.C.E and enslaved many Greek citizens. These slave were taken back to Rome where they had a large influnence on Roman education. By the end of the first century B.C.E. many of the Greek educational theories were dominant and in Roman practice. The Roman school system consisted of an elementary school, or ''ludus, which was attend by children, both boys and girls between the ages of 7-12. The curriculum consisted of reading, writing and accounting. A secondary school, or grammar school, was provided by boys ages 12-16 usually of upper class origins. The curriculum of the grammar school consisted of grammar taught in either Greek or Latin and literature. Boys, between 16-20, went on to attend a school of rhetoric, where they participated in grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, music, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy. Universities were beginning to be established throughout the Roman Empire during this time. Students could learn the arts of philosophy, law, mathematics, medicine, architecture, or rhetoric. Roman Philosphers Quintilian (35-95 A.D.) Quintilian is most well-known for becoming the first state-supported teacher. He and his educational beliefs were so respected he promoted to a senator, thus becoming the first state-supported educator. Quintilian believed that education was important to complete a whole and moral person. He was a proponent of adding subjects such as literature, music, astronomy, geometry and philosophy. He believed that educating youth would be much more effective in public group settings than in a home setting with private tutors. Educating youth in public settings allowed for them to learn by example, as well as, learn from others' mistakes. He also, strongly opposed corporal punishment. Middle Ages (476 A.D.- c.1500 A.D.) Germanic tribes defeated the Romans and imposed not only their Catholic religion amongst other parts of their culture but also their views of education. The Roman Catholic Church dictated their beliefs on society at large and in education. All aspects of public school disappeared during the Middle Ages, and the education of few was the responsibility of the church. Monastic schools were originally developed to prepare clergy, educated boys in the former curriculum of the Roman school system. Theology was a main component of the curriculum, especially for those considering priesthood. A huge contribution of education in the Middle Ages was the copious amounts of manuscripts that were copied at the monastic schools. During the Crusades in the late Middle Ages, Europeans were reintroduced to Greek educational ideas that was preserved by Arab scholars. One of these concepts was that of the University. After its rediscovery this concept spread like wildfire all over Medieval Europe. Arab Influences Arab scholars were responsible for preserving Greek educational philosophies that were rediscovered and reclaimed throughout Europe. Especially its university and higher education systems. The Arab system served as a model for many of the reestablished universities throughout medieval Europe. Many extensive libraries were also established throughout the Arab Empire. Hospitals were also established throughout the Arab empire. Doctors within these hospitals were expected to pass a test which earned them a license. A public school was also connected to each Mosque. In these school huge complelations of dictionaries, lexicons, encyclopedias, literature, algebra, astronomy, commerce and agronomy. The arabic numeral system was also adopted by Europeans. Medieval Philosophers Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225-1274 A.D.) Thomas Aquinas was a Dominican monk most well known for his philosophies of Scholasticism or neo-Thomism. Aquinas used ideas of Aristotle and mixed them with religion. He recognized that human beings had both a soul, or spiritual nature, and body, or physical nature. He proposed that people, could arrive at truth through reason. If reason were to fail, people would then have to rely solely on reason's compliment faith. Through these beliefs Thomas Aquinas developed the basis for Catholic school curriculum, which consisted of both theology and the liberal arts. Renaissance (1400 A.D.- 1600 A.D.) The Renaissance is recognized as a rebirth and renewed interest in the ancients, namely the Greeks and Romans. Humanism became the dominant philosophy of the Renaissance. The main subject of humanism was human nature. It was composed of concepts such as dignity, the individual, free will, and the validation of the human spirit. Education became all about being well versed in the classics. The seven liberal arts, grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and mucic, were determined during the Renaissance. Quintilian's ideas of extra curricular activies was also readopted. Renaissance Philosophers Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536 A.D.) Erasmus was a proponent of teaching students early in their childhood. He was one of the first philosophers to suggest that teachers should be trained, so that they could become generally educated as well as develop an expertise in one or more subject. He also, proposed that curriculum should be developed according to students' needs and like Quintilian, Erasmus strongly opposed corporal punishment. According to Erasmus, individuals had an obligation to better themselves. Reformation (1517-1648 A.D.) The Reformation is credited at as being the time period in which educational thought and practices were revolutionized in elementary education. The Reformation began when Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-fie Thesis to the door of a church in Wittenburg, Germany. This document questioned and challenged the authority of the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in a division between the Roman Catholic Church and the newly formed group of Protestants. The Gutenberg printing press was also developed around this time, which enabled the bible to be translated and distributed quickly. Vernacular schools were also established during the Reformation. Vernacular schools would teach children in their language of origin rather that in the language of the bible. Martin Luther Luther believed that individuals were responsible for their own salvation that came through faith alone. Reading and studying the Scriptures was the main way, Luther felt, that people could solidify their faith. This, however, was a problem because the majority of the population was illiterate. To remedy this problem, Luther supported free and mandatory elementary education supported and run by the state for all children, regardless of their social class. The curriculum Luther proposed should include classical languages, grammar, mathematics, science, history, physical education, music and moral teaching. He also, believed that part of each day should be spent learning a trade through an apprenticeship. Secondary school should take on the role of teaching those who wanted to enter the clergy and only those who showed extraordinary intellect should attend a university. John Calvin Calvin also, rejected the authority of the Catholic Church and shared Luther’s believe that salvation was obtained through faith and the study of the Scriptures. To do this all people needed to possess the capability to read the bible themselves. A school, in Calvin’s eyes, was a place for both religious teachings, as well as, a general curriculum. Calvin was a supporter of the two track school system, in which a common schools would educated the masses and secondary schools would teach those who showed intellectual promise the classical, humanist curriculum to prepare them to become leaders of both the church and the state. Age of Enlightenment or Reason The Reformation not only questioned the Roman Catholic Church and its authority but it also led to the exploration of the laws of nature. Reason and scientific inquiry became key components of the Age of Enlightenment. A belief that the universe was determined by “natural laws”. Philosophers Francis Bacon(1561-1626 A.D.) Francis Bacon is credited as being the man who developed critical thinking skills. He refused to accept previous accepted hypotheses and used scientific inquiry when developing his beliefs. John Locke (1632-1704 A.D.) Locke was a proponent of the tabula rasa theory. This theory states that we, as people, are born into this world with a mind like a blank slate. As we grow and experience we learn. Locke suggested that a curriculum have more than just reading, writing and arithmetic. He believed that to become a reasonable human being a person needed to be exposed to history, geography, ethics, philosophy, science and foreign languages as well. Locke agreed that people had natural rights, one of which was education, and they came from God, rather than an established authority. He believed that life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness were among these natural rights. Education in the New World French and Spanish Influence European educational influence stretched much farther than the New England colonies. French Jesuits and Spanish Franciscans followed fur traders and explorers into every corner of the New World attempting to bring the word of God to indigenous populations, while simultaneously educating them by European standards. The French played a role in the conversion and education of indigenous peoples from Canada to Louisiana. Educational influences of these early Jesuit missionaries can still be seen in Quebec and New Orleans. The early Spanish Franciscan missionaries worked primarily in the Southwest. After these priests established their network of missions many people began to migrate north from present day Mexico. Many children of these early immigrants was educated at one of these Franciscan missions. Language, agricultural and vocational training was the main curriculum taught by these Spanish priests. Colonial America (1607-1770’s A.D.) After escaping religious persecution the first puritan colony was established at Jamestown, located in Virginia, in 1607 only opened up the door for many other colonies throughout New England. Colonies were also established in Plymouth, located in Massachusetts, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island, New Haven, Hew Hampshire and Maine. Religious Influence Many of these new settlers were driven by religious commitment, which played a large role in their views on education. Each established colony differed in their opinions on economics, politics, religion, education and their roles within society. The dominant religious group of the colony usually decided how the government and schools were to be run. Many of the Puritans held strong to the educational views of the Reformation. The role of Education was for both religious instruction and to educated its people so that the colony could be a economically self sufficient. Modern Advancements in Education Laws During the establishment of the New England Colonies came the establishment of the first educational laws. The Massachusetts Law of 1642 declared that each town must decide whether or not parents and schoolmasters were providing an adequate education for the youth of the colony. The Education Law of 1647 declared that if a township had 50 or more households then they were to provide a teacher to teach a minimum of reading and writing. The law also stated that any town with 100 or more households must establish a grammar school. During this time it is said that laws were also made to make education mandatory. Elementary Schools Many colonists implemented Calvin’s two track educational system. Town schools and dame schools were created to educated children of lower social classes in reading, writing and math. Dame schools were normally held in the kitchen or living room of a townsperson and were free for children to attend. A woman, oftentimes widowed, who would receive a small fee for her services, taught the classes. Girls were allowed to attend dame and town schools. At the least girls were expected to learn how to read, so that, they could read the bible. The second track of the educational system was the apprenticeship. The masters of apprentices were required by law to provide at least a minimal education for them. Secondary Schools Secondary grammar schools were established to continue educating male children of the upper social class. These secondary grammar schools served to groom these young men for university. Latin, some Greek and Hebrew, as well as, the subjects of the Renaissance were the curriculum. Secondary education lasted 6 to 7 years and was yearlong. University The curriculum of early colonial universities’ was rooted in the classics. During the later colonial period several colleges were established. Current universities such as Yale, Dartmouth, Harvard and the College of William and Mary were all established during the later colonial years. References Category:Browse